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"The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario. The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Normal School Manuals: Science of Education, by Ontario Ministry of Education This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Ontario Normal School Manuals: Science of Education Author: Ontario Ministry of Education Release Date: May 25, 2006 [EBook #18451] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO NORMAL SCHOOL *** Produced by Suzanne Lybarger and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) ONTARIO NORMAL SCHOOL MANUALS SCIENCE OF EDUCATION AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION -1- The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario. TORONTO THE RYERSON PRESS Copyright, Canada, 1915, by The Minister of Education for Ontario Second Printing, 1919. Third Printing, 1923. PART I THE PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION Chapter I Nature and Purpose of Education Conditions of Growth and Development Worth in Human Life Factors in Social Efficiency Chapter II Forms of Reaction Instinctive Reaction Habitual Reaction Conscious Reaction Factors in process Experience Relative value of experiences Influence of Conscious Reaction Chapter III Process of Education Conscious Adjustment Education as Adjustment Education as Control of Adjustment Requirements of the Instructor Chapter IV The School Curriculum Purposes of Curriculum Dangers in Use of Curriculum Chapter V Educational Institutions The School Other Educative Agents The church The home The vocation Other institutions page 1 2 4 6 9 9 10 11 12 13 15 17 19 19 19 22 24 25 25 28 34 34 35 35 36 36 36 -2- The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario. Chapter VI The Purpose of the School Civic Views Individualistic Views The Eclectic View Chapter VII Divisions of Educational Study Control of Experience The Instructor’s Problems General method Special methods School management History of education PART II METHODOLOGY Chapter VIII General Method Subdivisions of Method Method and Mind Chapter IX The Lesson Problem Nature of Problem Need of Problem Pupil’s Motive Awakening Interest Knowledge of Problem How to Set Problem Examples of Motivation Chapter X Learning as a Selecting Activity The Selecting Process Law of Preparation Value of preparation Precautions Necessity of preparation Examples of preparation Chapter XI Learning as a Relating Activity Nature of Synthesis Interaction of Processes 38 38 40 43 46 46 48 49 49 50 50 52 52 53 55 55 57 59 61 67 69 71 75 77 82 83 84 85 86 89 90 91 -3- The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario. Knowledge unified Chapter XII Application of Knowledge Types of Action Nature of Expression Types of Expression Value of Expression Dangers of Omitting Expression and Impression Chapter XIII Forms of Lesson Presentation The Lecture Method The Text-book Method Uses of text-book Abuse of text-book The Developing Method The Objective Method The Illustrative Method Precautions Modes of Presentation Compared Chapter XIV Classification of Knowledge Acquisition of Particular Knowledge Through senses Through imagination By deduction Acquisition of General Knowledge By conception By induction Applied knowledge general Processes of Acquiring Knowledge Similar Chapter XV Modes of Learning Development of Particular Knowledge Learning through senses Learning through imagination Learning by deduction Examples for study Development of General Knowledge The conceptual lesson 94 95 96 97 99 100 102 103 106 106 109 111 113 113 116 118 119 121 122 122 122 122 123 124 124 125 126 127 129 129 129 131 133 137 139 139 -4- The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario. The inductive lesson The formal steps Conception as learning process Induction as learning process Further examples The inductive-deductive lesson Chapter XVI The Lesson Unit Whole to Parts Parts to Whole Precautions Chapter XVII Lesson Types The Study Lesson The Recitation Lesson Conducting recitation lesson The Drill Lesson The Review Lesson The topical review The comparative review Chapter XVIII Questioning Qualifications of Good Questioner Purposes of Questioning Socratic Questioning The Question The Answer Limitations PART III EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Chapter XIX Consciousness Value of Educational Psychology Limitations Methods of Psychology Phases of Consciousness Chapter XX Mind and Body The Nervous System The Cortex 140 141 143 144 145 148 150 151 154 155 156 157 160 161 162 165 166 169 171 171 173 174 177 179 181 183 186 186 187 189 192 192 198 -5- The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario. Reflex Acts Characteristics of Nervous Matter Chapter XXI Instinct Human Instincts Curiosity Imitation Play Play in education Chapter XXII Habit Formation of Habits Value of Habits Improvement of Habits Chapter XXIII Attention Attention Selective Involuntary Attention Non-voluntary Attention Voluntary Attention Attention in Education Chapter XXIV The Feeling of Interest Classes of Feelings Interest in Education Development of interests Chapter XXV Sense Perception Genesis of Perception Factors in Sensation Classification of Sensations Education of the Senses Chapter XXVI Memory and Apperception Distinguished Factors of Memory Conditions of Memory Types of Recall Localization of Time Classification of Memories 199 202 207 209 214 217 221 223 226 230 231 234 237 240 243 245 246 251 257 258 261 264 267 270 273 274 276 282 283 284 285 288 290 290 -6- The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario. Memory in Education Apperception Conditions of Apperception Factors in Apperception Chapter XXVII Imagination Types of Imagination Passive Active Uses of Imagination Chapter XXVIII Thinking Conception Factors in concept Aims of conceptual lessons The definition Judgment Errors in judgment Reasoning Deduction Induction Development of Reasoning Power Chapter XXIX Feeling Conditions of Feeling Tone Sensuous Feelings Emotion Conditions of emotion Other Types of Feeling Mood Disposition Temperament Sentiments Chapter XXX The Will Types of Movement Development of Control Volition Factors in volitional act Abnormal Types of Will 291 293 294 296 298 299 299 300 301 304 305 309 310 313 315 317 320 320 323 328 330 331 334 334 335 340 340 340 340 341 342 342 343 345 346 348 -7- The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario. Chapter XXXI Child Study Methods of Child Study Periods of Development Infancy Childhood Adolescence Individual Differences Appendix Suggested Readings 352 355 358 358 359 361 363 369 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION PART I. PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION [1] CHAPTER I NATURE AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION Value of Scientific Knowledge.—In the practice of any intelligent occupation or art, in so far as the practice attains to perfection, there are manifested in the processes certain scientific principles and methods to which the work of the one practising the art conforms. In the successful practice, for example, of the art of composition, there are manifested the principles of rhetoric; in that of housebuilding, the principles of architecture; and in that of government, the principles of civil polity. In practising any such art, moreover, the worker finds that a knowledge of these scientific principles and methods will guide him in the correct practice of the art,—a knowledge of the science of rhetoric assisting in the art of composition; of the science of architecture, in the art of housebuilding; and of the science of civil polity, in the art of government. The Science of Education.—If the practice of teaching is an intelligent art, there must, in like manner, be found in its processes certain principles and methods which may be set forth in systematic form as a science of education, and applied by the educator in the art of teaching. Assuming the existence of a science of education, it is further evident that the student-teacher should make himself acquainted with its leading principles, and likewise learn to apply these principles in his practice of the art of[2] teaching. To this end, however, it becomes necessary at the outset to determine the limits of the subject-matter of the science. We shall, therefore, first consider the general nature and purpose of education so far as to decide the facts to be included in this science. -8- The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario. CONDITIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT A. Physical Growth.—Although differing in their particular conception of the nature of education, all educators agree in setting the child as the central figure in the educative process. As an individual, the child, like other living organisms, develops through a process of inner changes which are largely conditioned by outside influences. In the case of animals and plants, physical growth, or development, is found to consist of changes caused in the main through the individual responding to external stimulation. Taking one of the simplest forms of animal life, for example, the amoeba, we find that when stimulated by any foreign matter not constituting its food, say a particle of sand, such an organism at once withdraws itself from the stimulating elements. On the other hand, if it comes in contact with suitable food, the amoeba not only flows toward it, but by assimilating it, at once begins to increase in size, or grow, until it finally divides, or reproduces, itself as shown in the following figures. Hence the amoeba as an organism is not only able to react appropriately toward different stimuli, but is also able to change itself, or develop, by its appropriate reactions upon such stimulations. In plant life, also, the same principle holds. As long as a grain of corn, wheat, etc., is kept in a dry place, the life principle stored up within the seed is unable to manifest itself in growth. When, on the other hand, it is appropriately stimulated by water, heat, and light, the seed[3] awakens to life, or germinates. In other words, the seed reacts upon the external stimulations of water, heat, and light, and manifests the activity known as growth, or development. Thus all physical growth, whether of the plant or the animal, is conditioned on the energizing of the inherent life principle, in response to appropriate stimulation of the environment. A. Simple amoeba. B. An amoeba developing as a result of assimilating food. C. An amoeba about to divide, or propagate. B. Development in Human Life.—In addition to its physical nature, human life has within it a spiritual law, or principle, which enables the individual to respond to suitable stimulations and by that means develop into an intelligent and moral being. When, for instance, waves of light from an external object stimulate the nervous system through the eye, man is able, through his intelligent -9- The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario. nature, to react mentally upon these stimulations and, by interpreting them, build up within his experience conscious images of light, colour, and form. In like manner, when the nerves in the hand are stimulated by an external object, the mind is able to react upon the impressions[4] and, by interpreting them, obtain images of touch, temperature, and weight. In the sphere of action, also, the child who is stimulated by the sight of his elder pounding with a hammer, sweeping with a broom, etc., reacts imitatively upon such stimulations, and thus acquires skill in action. So also when stimulated by means of his human surroundings, as, for example, through the kindly acts of his mother, father, etc., he reacts morally toward these stimulations and thus develops such social qualities as sympathy, love, and kindness. Nor are the conditions of development different in more complex intellectual problems. If a child is given nine blocks on which are printed the nine digits, and is asked to arrange them in the form of a square so that each of the horizontal and the vertical columns will add up to fifteen, there is equally an inner growth through stimulation and response. In such a case, since the answer is unknown to the child, the problem serves as a stimulation to his mind. Furthermore, it is only by reacting upon this problem with his present knowledge of the value of the various digits when combined in threes, as 1, 6, 8; 5, 7, 3; 9, 2, 4; 1, 5, 9; etc., that the necessary growth of knowledge relative to the solution of the problem will take place within the mind. WORTH IN HUMAN LIFE But the possession of an intellectual and moral nature which responds to appropriate stimulations implies, also, that as man develops intellectually, he will find meaning in human life as realized in himself and others. Thus he becomes able to recognize worth in human life and to determine the conditions which favour its highest growth, or development.[5] The Worthy Life not a Natural Growth.—Granting that it is thus possible to recognize that "life is not a blank," but that it should develop into something of worth, it by no means follows that the young child will adequately recognize and desire a worthy life, or be able to understand and control the conditions which make for its development. Although, indeed, there is implanted in his nature a spiritual tendency, yet his early interests are almost wholly physical and his attitude impulsive and selfish. Left to himself, therefore, he is likely to develop largely as a creature of appetite, controlled by blind passions and the chance impressions of the moment. Until such time, therefore, as he obtains an adequate development of his intellectual and moral life, his behaviour conforms largely to the wants of his physical nature, and his actions are irrational and wasteful. Under such conditions the young child, if left to himself to develop in accordance with his native tendencies through the chance impressions which may stimulate him from without, must fall short of attaining to a life of worth. For this reason education is designed to control the growth, or development, of the child, by directing his stimulations and responses in such a way that his life may develop into one of worth. Character of the Worthy Life.—If, however, it is possible to add to the worth of the life of the child by controlling and modifying his natural reactions, the first problem confronting the scientific educator is to decide what constitutes a life of worth. This question belongs primarily to ethics, or the science of right living, to which the educator must turn for his solution. Here it will be learned that the higher life is one made up of moral relations. In other words, the perfect man is a social man and the perfect life is a life made up of social rights and[6] duties, wherein one is able to realize his own good in conformity with the good of others, and seek his own happiness by including within it the happiness of others. But to live a life of social worth, man must gain such - 10 - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario. control over his lower physical wants and desires that he can conform them to the needs and rights of others. He must, in other words, in adapting himself to his social environment, develop a sense of duty toward his fellows which will cause him to act in co-operation with others. He must refuse, for instance, to satisfy his own want by causing want to others, or to promote his own desires by giving pain to others. Secondly, he must obtain such control over his physical surroundings, including his own body, that he is able to make these serve in promoting the common good. In the worthy life, therefore, man has so adjusted himself to his fellow men that he is able to co-operate with them, and has so adjusted himself to his physical surroundings that he is able to make this co-operation effective, and thus live a socially efficient life. FACTORS IN SOCIAL EFFICIENCY A. Knowledge, a Factor in Social Efficiency.—The following simple examples will more fully demonstrate the factors which enter into the socially efficient life. The young child, for instance, who lives on the shore of one of our great lakes, may learn through his knowledge of colour to distinguish between the water and the sky on the horizon line. This knowledge, he finds, however, does not enter in any degree into his social life within the home. When on the same basis, however, he learns to distinguish between the ripe and the unripe berries in the garden, he finds this knowledge of service in the community, or home, life, since it enables him to distinguish the fruit his mother[7] may desire for use in the home. One mark of social efficiency, therefore, is to possess knowledge that will enable us to serve effectively in society. B. Skill, a Factor in Social Efficiency.—In the sphere of action, also, the child might acquire skill in making stones skip over the surface of the lake. Here, again, however, the acquired skill would serve no purpose in the community life, except perhaps occasionally to enable him to amuse himself or his fellows. When, on the other hand, he acquires skill in various home occupations, as opening and closing the gates, attending to the furnace, harnessing and driving the horse, or playing a musical instrument, he finds that this skill enables him in some measure to serve in the community life of which he is a member. A second factor in social efficiency, therefore, is the possession of such skill as will enable us to co-operate effectively within our social environment. C. Right Feeling, a Factor in Social Efficiency.—But granting the possession of adequate knowledge and skill, a man may yet fall far short of the socially efficient life. The machinist, for instance, may know fully all that pertains to the making of an excellent engine for the intended steamboat. He may further possess the skill necessary to its actual construction. But through indifference or a desire for selfish gain, this man may build for the vessel an engine which later, through its poor construction, causes the loss of the ship and its crew. A third necessary requisite in social efficiency, therefore, is the possession of a sense of duty which compels us to use our knowledge and skill with full regard to the feelings and rights of others. Thus a certain amount of socially useful knowledge, a certain measure of socially effective skill, and[8] a certain sense of moral obligation, or right feeling, all enter as factors into the socially efficient life. FORMAL EDUCATION Assuming that the educator is thus able to distinguish what constitutes a life of worth, and to recognize and in some measure control the stimulations and reactions of the child, it is evident that he should be able to devise ways and means by which the child may grow into a more worthy, that is, into a more socially efficient, life. Such an attempt to control the reactions of the child as he - 11 - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario. adjusts himself to the physical and social world about him, in order to render him a more socially efficient member of the society to which he belongs, is described as formal education.[9] CHAPTER II FORMS OF REACTION INSTINCTIVE REACTION Since th..."

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